Drug Database
SP

spironolactone

✓ Approved

Pfizer, Inc. · NR3C2 · Small Molecule

What is spironolactone?

spironolactone is a small molecule developed by Pfizer, Inc.. It is approved for therapeutic indications via oral (po).

Drug Profile

CompanyPfizer, Inc.
Drug ClassSmall Molecule
Molecular TargetNR3C2, SCNN1A
RouteOral (PO)
StatusApproved
Sources: ClinicalTrials.gov, Pfizer, Inc.

Mechanism of Action

Molecular Targets

spironolactone acts on 2 molecular targets:

NR3C2nuclear receptor subfamily 3 group C member 2 (NR3C2VIT, MR)
SCNN1Asodium channel epithelial 1 subunit alpha (SCNEA, BESC2)
Want deeper analysis?Noah AI can explain complex mechanisms and compare to similar drugs.

Therapeutic Indications

spironolactone is developed for 3 unique indications across 3 therapeutic areas.

Therapeutic AreaConditionPhase
Cardiac disordersCardiac failure✓ Approved
Vascular disordersHypertension✓ Approved
General disorders and administration site conditionsOedema due to cardiac disease✓ Approved

Related Research Articles

PubMedKidney medicine2026-07-25

Association of Proximal Tubule Secretion With Hyperkalemia Risk, Treatment Response, and Outcomes in Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction.

Wettersten Nicholas N, Katz Ronit R, Garimella Pranav S PS, Bullen Alexander L AL et al.

Endogenous biomarkers reflecting impaired kidney tubular secretion are associated with risk of hyperkalemia in patients with hypertension and chronic kidney disease. Whether these biomarkers are associated with risk of hyperkalemia, therapeutic response, and adverse cardiovascular and kidney events in heart failure (HF) patients receiving mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists is unknown. An observational cohort study. Individuals with HF with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) enrolled in the TOPCAT study. Summary secretion score incorporating urine-to-plasma ratios of 9 secretion markers measured in paired samples at baseline. Change in serum potassium during follow-up, measures of treatment response assessed by change in Kansas City Cardiomyopathy Questionnaire (KCCQ) score and N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide over 12 months, and adverse cardiovascular and kidney events. Linear mixed-effects models, Cox proportional hazards models, and linear regression adjusting for risk factors, estimated glomerular filtration rate, and urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio. Among 372 TOPCAT participants, 179 (48%) were randomized to spironolactone, 45% were women, the mean age was 70 ± 10 years and estimated glomerular filtration rate was 66 ± 18 mL/min/1.73 m2. In adjusted models, higher secretion score was not associated with changes in serum potassium, change in KCCQ ≥5 points, change in N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide, adverse cardiovascular or kidney events. In adjusted models, a higher secretion score was associated with lower KCCQ at 12 months (change -3.5, 95% CI, -6.6 to -0.4) in the spironolactone arm, but not in the placebo arm. Low number of events, confounding from Eastern Europe participants who may have not had HFpEF or taken prescribed therapies. Biomarkers of tubular secretion are not associated with risk of hyperkalemia, treatment response, or cardiovascular and kidney events in individuals with HFpEF.

PMID 42499456
Read full article →
PubMedInternational journal of dental hygiene2026-07-25

The Effectiveness of Oral Exercise for Oral Function Rehabilitation in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Choi Yong-Keum YK, Park Hyang-Ah HA, Cha Eun-Gyeong EG, Yun Ji-Hye JH

Older adults are prone to oral function decline due to ageing, necessitating interventions for rehabilitation. Although oral exercises are widely recommended, systematic evidence supporting their effectiveness remains insufficient. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of oral exercise interventions for rehabilitating oral functions in older adults. This systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted in accordance with PRISMA guidelines. A comprehensive electronic search was performed in PubMed, Ovid Embase, Cochrane Library and CINAHL up to August 2022. Randomised controlled trials comparing oral exercise interventions with control conditions were included. The quality of the included studies was assessed using the Risk of Bias (ROB) 2.0 tool. A total of eight studies were included in the meta-analysis and pooled mean differences were estimated using a random-effects model. Among 1007 identified studies, 19 were included in the qualitative synthesis and 8 in the meta-analysis. Interventions targeted masticatory, swallowing, pronunciation and salivary functions. Tongue exercises significantly improved swallowing function (MD = 7.06; 95% CI: 4.72-9.41; p < 0.01) and masticatory exercises enhanced masticatory function (MD = 37.77; 95% CI: 15.61-59.92; p < 0.001). However, lip exercises showed no significant effect on swallowing function (MD = 1.43; 95% CI: -0.11-2.98; p = 0.07). Oral exercise interventions, particularly tongue and masticatory exercises, may improve oral function in older adults. These findings support the use of oral exercise as a practical intervention for dental hygienists and community-based oral health programmes.

PMID 42499008
Read full article →
PubMedCommunity dental health2026-07-25

Oral health impacts and socioeconomic inequalities in disability and quality of life: A population-based study.

Manriquez-Robles Diego D, Aedo Melisa M, Roa-Castillo Scarlett S

To examine whether oral health impacts function as a pathway linking socioeconomic position to functional disability and multidimensional quality of life in a nationally representative Chilean sample, we conducted a cross-sectional population-based analysis using complex survey methods and mediation modelling. Data were obtained from a national population-based household survey in Chile and included 16,590 non-institutionalized individuals aged 15 years and older, representing approximately 16.2 million individuals in the Chilean population after application of survey weights. Main outcome measures were oral health-related quality of life (OHIP-7), self-reported functional disability, and WHOQOL-BREF physical, psychological, social, and environmental domains. Pronounced socioeconomic gradients were observed in oral health impacts. Individuals in the highest education and income strata had significantly lower odds of high oral health impact (OR = 0.39 and 0.33, respectively, p < .001). High oral health impact was strongly associated with functional disability (OR = 3.85, p < .001) and with lower scores across all WHOQOL-BREF domains (physical B = -10.58, psychological B = -7.19, social B = -8.52, environmental B = -7.04, all p < .001). Inclusion of OHIP attenuated associations between socioeconomic indicators and disability. Monte Carlo simulations indicated statistically significant indirect effects of education and income on disability and quality-of-life domains through oral health impact. Oral health impacts are socially patterned and closely linked to functional disability and multidimensional quality of life. Findings are consistent with the interpretation that oral conditions may contribute to broader socioeconomic gradients in functioning and well-being, supporting the integration of oral health within primary care and health equity strategies.

PMID 42499132
Read full article →
PubMedFrontiers in nutrition2026-07-25

Reframing glucolipid metabolic disorders through the lens of the oral microbiome: from pathophysiological mechanisms to translational potential.

Xiong Pingjie P, Wang Bin B, Liu Yufei Y, Wang Zhihui Z et al.

With the rising prevalence of metabolic diseases, their comorbidity is increasingly common. Glucolipid metabolic disorders (GLMD) constitute a major health challenge associated with increased cardiovascular risk and mortality. Despite many advances in disease mechanisms and therapeutic strategies, the metabolic disease burden remains substantial. Routine clinical practice still lacks straightforward approaches for identifying individuals at elevated risk, and the challenge of effectively preventing and controlling GLMD has become an urgent clinical problem. Significant gaps remain in our understanding of metabolic disease. Advances in high-throughput sequencing and omics technologies have expanded the research perspective, shifting attention from organ-centered pathology toward microecological and metabolic networks, elucidating the interactions between the oral microbiota and host metabolism. As the second largest microbial community after the gut microbiota, the oral microbiome provides an integrative lens for examining GLMD-related microbial signatures, plausible mechanistic pathways, and translational opportunities, including inflammation, taste signaling, nitric oxide metabolism, and microbial translocation. This review aims to clarify the relationship between the oral microbiome and GLMD, outline characteristic microbial alterations in metabolic diseases, and summarize the plausible mechanisms linking oral microorganisms with metabolic homeostasis. Current evidence indicates partially recurrent microbial patterns across GLMD-related conditions, but no universal oral microbial signature has been established. Building on recent findings, we conclude by outlining the methodological requirements for evaluating the clinical utility of oral microbiome-based markers and interventions, and further discuss the value of oral microbiota in disease prediction, risk assessment, and individualized intervention. We also summarize the key limitations and challenges in the field and outline directions for future prevention and control of GLMD based on oral microecology.

PMID 42500251
Read full article →
PubMedOpen medicine (Warsaw, Poland)2026-07-25

In silico dysbiosis-associated neuroprotective metabolite insufficiency in Alzheimer's disease.

Shaer Nehad A NA, Al-Abbas Nouf S NS

Perturbation of oral and gut microbiomes has been implicated in alzheimer's disease (AD) along the oral-gut-brain axis; however, the extent of global community restructuring may differ between niches. The present work constitutes a computational interrogation of 16S rRNA profiles from eight-month-old APP/PS1 and wild-type mice, characterizing oral and gut community structure and predicted functional capacity through PICRUSt-driven, KEGG-anchored pathway inference. Comparative taxonomic interrogation disclosed patterns consistent with ectopic occurrence, whereby classically oral genera (Fusobacterium, Streptococcus) were preferentially enriched within intestinal assemblages and gut-typical genera (Muribaculum, Paramuribaculum) emerged as prominent constituents of the oral microbiota in APP/PS1 mice. These cross-niche enrichment patterns, together with significant oral community separation but non-significant gut beta-diversity separation by ANOSIM, were accompanied by predicted decrements in 85 orally enriched enzymes distributed across 25 KEGG pathways, approximately 40 % of which were associated with the biosynthesis of metabolites with reported neuroprotective properties, including glutathione, acetyl-CoA, succinate, malate, formate, lactate, acetate, and monoterpenoids. Systems-level synthesis of these predictions indicated convergent perturbation of antioxidant defenses, bioenergetic circuitry, and one-carbon metabolism, plausibly reflecting metabolic choke points that may favor cognitive deterioration. Although the oral microbiome showed significant inter-cohort separation, the gut microbiome did not, indicating that gut changes are best viewed as taxon-specific shifts within an otherwise stable community. These observations support a hypothesis-generating framework in which oral dysbiosis, selective gut alterations, and cross-niche enrichment patterns are linked to computationally inferred neuroprotective metabolite insufficiency, highlighting specific taxa, enzymes, and pathways as candidates for biomarker and microbiome-targeted therapeutic development in AD.

PMID 42499533
Read full article →
PubMedInternational journal of dental hygiene2026-07-25

Territorial Inequity in Oral Health: Cross-Sectional Geospatial Study of the Distribution of Dental Services in Colombia.

Acuña-Gómez Johanna S JS, Carreño-Patiño Ludwing B LB, Ternera-Pulido Jairo H JH, Jiménez-Barbosa Wilson G WG

Oral health services are central to population well-being, and their territorial distribution is a proxy for equity in access. Although Colombia incorporated oral health into the national benefits package nearly three decades ago, it is unclear whether service location reflects population needs. Therefore, this work seeks to answer the following research question: What is the quantity and geospatial distribution of oral-health services in Colombia at the departmental level, disaggregated by dental specialties? The objective was to analyze the geospatial distribution of oral-health services in Colombia at the departmental level, disaggregated by dental specialties. We performed a descriptive cross-sectional geospatial study. All dental services registered in the National Registry of Health Providers (REPS) as of March 2024 were retrieved, duplicates removed and service-to-population rates calculated. Geographic information systems were used to visualize spatial patterns. A total of 40,666 unique services were identified. General dentistry, orthodontics and dental radiology accounted for 74.9% of the supply, with 50.3% provided by independent practitioners. Service rates were highest in Antioquia, Bogotá D.C., Quindío and Caldas, and lowest in Vaupés and Vichada. Several Amazonian and Orinoquía departments had zero services in periodontics or paediatric dentistry. Colombia exhibits marked territorial inequities in dental service distribution, driven by market dynamics rather than public-health priorities.

PMID 42499006
Read full article →

+9996 more articles available with a free account

Sign up free to view all articles →

Ask about spironolactone