Drug Database
SP

spironolactone

✓ Approved

Pfizer, Inc. · NR3C2 · Small Molecule

What is spironolactone?

spironolactone is a small molecule developed by Pfizer, Inc.. It is approved for therapeutic indications via oral (po).

Drug Profile

CompanyPfizer, Inc.
Drug ClassSmall Molecule
Molecular TargetNR3C2, SCNN1A
RouteOral (PO)
StatusApproved
Sources: ClinicalTrials.gov, Pfizer, Inc.

Mechanism of Action

Molecular Targets

spironolactone acts on 2 molecular targets:

NR3C2nuclear receptor subfamily 3 group C member 2 (NR3C2VIT, MR)
SCNN1Asodium channel epithelial 1 subunit alpha (SCNEA, BESC2)
Want deeper analysis?Noah AI can explain complex mechanisms and compare to similar drugs.

Therapeutic Indications

spironolactone is developed for 3 unique indications across 3 therapeutic areas.

Therapeutic AreaConditionPhase
Cardiac disordersCardiac failure✓ Approved
Vascular disordersHypertension✓ Approved
General disorders and administration site conditionsOedema due to cardiac disease✓ Approved

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The oral exposome and environment-related diseases of hard and soft oral tissues: a comprehensive review.

Aliberti Angelo A, Coppola Noemi N, Gasparro Roberta R, Trosino Oreste O et al.

The oral cavity is continuously exposed to environmental, lifestyle-related, microbial, and systemic influences capable of altering tissue homeostasis and contributing to chronic oral disease. Environmental exposures may interact through inflammatory, microbial, and metabolic pathways affecting both hard and soft oral tissues. This review critically synthesizes current evidence on environment-related oral diseases within the framework of the oral exposome, focusing on environmental determinants, biological mechanisms, tissue alterations, and implications for oral surgery, implantology, regenerative procedures, and precision oral medicine. A comprehensive narrative review was conducted through electronic searches of PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science for studies published up to April 2026. English-language articles evaluating relationships between environmental exposure and oral tissue alterations were included. Evidence regarding environmental pollutants, smoking, alcohol consumption, dietary factors, occupational exposures, and other external determinants was critically analyzed together with host-related modifiers, including salivary dysfunction, microbial dysbiosis, systemic disease, and chronic inflammatory conditions. The review considered exposure-associated alterations involving dental hard tissues, periodontal and peri-implant structures, oral mucosa, salivary homeostasis, and oral microbial ecology. The strength of evidence varied substantially across exposure-outcome relationships. The most mature human evidence concerned conventional tobacco smoking and selected carcinogenic exposures, whereas associations involving air pollution, heavy metals, occupational toxicants, electronic cigarettes, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, and emerging contaminants showed greater heterogeneity and, for several outcomes, relied substantially on observational, experimental, or mechanistic evidence. Across these different levels of evidence, recurrent pathways included oxidative stress, inflammation, microbial dysbiosis, epithelial dysfunction, and altered tissue homeostasis. The oral exposome provides a useful framework for understanding the multifactorial nature of oral disease and the interaction among environmental exposure, microbial ecology, host response, and tissue homeostasis.

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PubMedHealth SA = SA Gesondheid2026-11-11

Oral health knowledge, attitude and practices among student nurses at a university in South Africa.

Khonco Pelisa P, Musafiri John J JJ, Chipps Jennifer-Anne JA

Poor oral health resulting from poor knowledge, negative attitudes and poor practices contributes to oral diseases. Oral diseases remain a public health concern and negatively affect student nurses' academic performance. These students should serve as role models in promoting oral health among communities. A lack of oral self-care among student nurses may raise a health concern. To assess student nurses' knowledge, determine their attitude and practices regarding oral health at a Western Cape university. This study was conducted at a Western Cape university, South Africa, which offers undergraduate nursing programmes. A quantitative approach with a descriptive design was conducted, and data were collected from a quota sample of 287 student nurses using a self-administered questionnaire. Data captured into IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences computer program IBM SPSS Statistics version 28.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, United States), were analysed using descriptive statistics and Chi-square tests to test associations. The response rate was 97.9% (281/287). Most of the respondents did not recognise the importance of brushing twice daily and flossing once, and only 98 (34.9%) were knowledgeable. A positive attitude was noted among the majority of the respondents (261, 92.9%) who agreed that oral health knowledge can contribute to the prevention of tooth loss. Good practices were noted among most of the respondents (277, 98.6%) who cleaned their teeth daily with a toothbrush. Student nurses had poor oral health knowledge, mixed attitudes and fair oral health practices. This study highlights the need for the formal integration of oral health into the nursing curriculum. This study contributed to the body of knowledge in nursing research and education.

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PubMedOral health & preventive dentistry2026-11-11

Oral Care of Post-Stroke Dysphagia Patients: A Cross-Sectional Survey of Neurological Nurses' Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices.

Hu Xiaoling X, Li Shijun S, Chen Juan J, Liao Chunlian C et al.

Most post-stroke dysphagia (PSD) patients suffer from compromised oral health, which necessitates standardised oral care delivered by nurses. This study aimed to evaluate neurological nurses' knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) related to oral care for PSD patients and explore associated influencing factors. A cross-sectional survey was performed from September to November 2024 with convenience sampling across Southwest China. Data were gathered via an online questionnaire consisting of two parts: demographic characteristics and a self-developed KAP scale tailored for neurological nurses responsible for oral care of PSD patients. Univariate correlation analysis and multiple linear regression analysis were applied to identify predictors of KAP scores. In total, 337 valid questionnaires were retrieved and analysed, corresponding to an effective response rate of 92%. Around 70.92% (n = 239) of participating nurses had never received targeted training on oral care for PSD patients. The mean total KAP score for neurological nurses regarding oral care for PSD patients was 121.45 ± 18.15, with scores for knowledge, attitudes, and practices being 53.98 ± 10.96, 43.75 ± 7.14, and 23.82 ± 6.50, respectively. Multiple linear regression demonstrated that hospital level, educational attainment, years of neurological nursing experience, and prior specialised training were significant predictors of KAP total scores (P 0.05). Neurological nurses had deficiencies in all three KAP dimensions for PSD oral care. Standardised targeted training programmes should be developed to improve nurses' professional oral care competence.

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PubMedFrontiers in dental medicine2026-11-11

Oral breathing and its dental and cognitive implications: a structured narrative review with a pediatric focus.

Towery Alex A, Deshpande Gopikrishna G

Oral breathing is a common condition, particularly in pediatric populations, that has been independently associated with dental abnormalities and cognitive dysfunction. However, these outcomes are often studied separately, limiting a comprehensive understanding of their potential interconnection. This structured narrative review synthesizes current literature to examine both the dental and cognitive consequences of habitual oral breathing and to highlight their possible shared physiological mechanisms, including a hypothesized role of disrupted nasal nitric oxide signaling. A structured PubMed search was conducted in October 2024 using two targeted strategies: one focused on dentofacial health outcomes and another on neurological and cognitive effects. Twenty-three primary studies were included in the evidence synthesis (fourteen dental and nine cognitive), and five reviews and editorials were consulted as contextual background. Across multiple studies, oral breathing is associated with malocclusion, differences in craniofacial morphology, and increased risk of oral disease. Concurrently, research suggests associations with reduced working memory, attention difficulties, altered brain oxygenation patterns, sleep-disordered breathing, and decreased academic performance. By setting these findings side by side, this review proposes a hypothesis-generating framework in which oral breathing is considered a possible marker of broad developmental and physiological risk; no included study examined dental and cognitive outcomes in the same participants. These findings emphasize the importance of early interdisciplinary identification and intervention, particularly within pediatric dental care, and highlight the need for future research exploring causal pathways between respiratory patterns, oral health, and cognitive development. Findings should be interpreted in light of the review's limitations, including reliance on a single database for the primary searches, heterogeneity in the diagnostic criteria for oral breathing, the predominance of observational designs, the absence of a formal risk-of-bias assessment, and reliance on adult experimental studies for several cognitive findings.

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Analysis of salivary amylase level in tobacco smokers with tobacco-associated mucosal lesions of the oral cavity: a case-control study.

Shetty Prathima P, Shirin Mariyam M, K M Veena V, Chatra Laxmikanth L et al.

Saliva is the first biological fluid to come into contact with tobacco smoke in smokers. Upon contact with saliva, tobacco smoke increases the production of reactive nitrogen species, thereby altering enzymatic activity. As a result, the protective functions of saliva are impaired, contributing to the development of oral pathologies. Evidence suggests that there is alteration in salivary amylase level in smokers, however the views are divergent. Hence, this study was carried out with the aim to analyze salivary amylase level in tobacco smokers with tobacco associated mucosal lesions of the oral cavity. A total of 80 patients were selected and divided into two groups of 40 smokers with tobacco associated mucosal lesions of the oral cavity (Cases) and 40 smokers without tobacco associated mucosal lesions of the oral cavity (Controls). Unstimulated saliva was collected from these patients and amylase level was estimated using CNPG3 method. The mean salivary amylase activity was 981.77 U/mL in the case group and 1116.28 U/mL in the control group. Independent t test was used to compare amylase levels between the groups. A statistically significant difference in mean salivary amylase levels between the groups with p < 0.001 was observed. A statistically significant reduction in salivary amylase levels was observed in tobacco smokers with tobacco-associated oral mucosal lesions compared with tobacco smokers without lesions. Reduction in amylase level may indicate that smoking can predispose oral mucosa to tobacco associated lesions.

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PubMedTissue engineering. Part B, Reviews2026-11-11

Ferroptosis in Oral Inflammatory Diseases: Advances and Perspectives.

Wang Jialin J, Li Zhuangzhuang Z, Wang Shulu S, Zou Ying Y et al.

Oral inflammatory diseases encompass a wide range of conditions, such as periodontitis, pulpitis, and temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis. However, conventional pharmacological therapies often fail to achieve satisfactory clinical outcomes. Ferroptosis is an iron-dependent form of regulated cell death that has gained increasing attention in recent years. It is characterized by excessive production of reactive oxygen species, lipid peroxidation, iron overload, and depletion of glutathione.Impact StatementThis review systematically elucidates the core molecular mechanisms of ferroptosis and its involvement in the onset and progression of oral inflammatory diseases. In addition, we summarize the key regulatory genes and noncoding RNA networks associated with ferroptosis. We also discuss recent advances in ferroptosis-targeted therapeutic strategies, with the aim of offering new perspectives for the diagnosis and treatment of oral inflammatory diseases. Importantly, this review further emphasizes the potential integration of ferroptosis regulation with biomaterials, targeted delivery systems, and regenerative strategies for oral tissue repair. This underscores its significance in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.

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