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timolol (Timpilo / timolol, ophthalmic)

✓ Approved

Merck & Co. · ADRB1 · Small Molecule

What is timolol?

timolol is a small molecule developed by Merck & Co.. It is approved for therapeutic indications.

Drug Profile

Brand NamesTimpilo, timolol, ophthalmic
CompanyMerck & Co.
Drug ClassSmall Molecule
Molecular TargetADRB1, ADRB2, CHRM3
StatusApproved
Sources: ClinicalTrials.gov, Merck & Co.

Mechanism of Action

Molecular Targets

timolol acts on 3 molecular targets:

ADRB1adrenoceptor beta 1 (BETA1AR, ADRB1R)
ADRB2adrenoceptor beta 2 (ADRBR, B2AR)
CHRM3cholinergic receptor muscarinic 3 (EGBRS, m3AChR)
Want deeper analysis?Noah AI can explain complex mechanisms and compare to similar drugs.

Therapeutic Indications

timolol is developed for 1 unique indication across 1 therapeutic area.

Therapeutic AreaConditionPhase
Eye disordersGlaucoma✓ Approved

Related Research Articles

PubMedOcular immunology and inflammation2026-09-19

Bilateral Maculopathy in an Infant Following Measles, Mumps, Rubella, and Varicella-Zoster (MMRV) Vaccination.

Ben-Avi Ravid R, Amer Radgonde R

To report on the long-term clinical outcome of a healthy infant who presented with posterior uveitis following the administration of the combined measles, mumps, rubella, and varicella (MMRV) vaccine. Descriptive case report. A 13-month-old infant presented with bilateral visual loss two weeks after receiving the MMRV vaccine. Ophthalmic examination revealed bilateral retinitis and retinal vasculitis with exudative retinal detachment. Extensive infectious work-up was conducted including serologic exams and PCR testing of blood, aqueous humor, cerebrospinal fluid and urine. Serological tests for measles yielded positive IgM and IgG titers. PCR testing for measles in the aqueous humor and urine was negative. Neurologic assessment and neuroimaging were unremarkable, excluding central nervous system involvement. Empiric systemic antiviral and corticosteroid therapy was initiated. Gradual resolution of posterior uveitis ensued, culminating in bilateral macular scars. Over a six-year follow-up period, the patient demonstrated stable ocular findings with no evidence of recurrent inflammation or systemic autoimmune disease. Final visual acuity was 6/9 in each eye. This case represents a rare occurrence of non-necrotizing retinitis following MMRV vaccination. To our knowledge, this is the first report describing the sequential OCT characteristics of presumed measles vaccine-associated retinitis. The prolonged follow-up period supports the absence of an alternative etiology and provides valuable insight into the long-term course and visual prognosis of vaccine-associated retinopathy.

PMID 42760840
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PubMedFrontiers in medicine2026-09-18

Current landscape and research gaps in artificial intelligence for ophthalmic nursing: a scoping review.

Song Qiong Q, Huang Xiaofang X, Hu Yamin Y, She Kaiqin K

Artificial intelligence (AI) is advancing rapidly across clinical medicine, yet its application within ophthalmic nursing, spanning emergency triage, perioperative care, day surgery, and patient education, remains poorly characterized. The growing burden of eye disease and the demand for community-based ophthalmic screening create an urgent context for understanding where AI can augment nursing capacity in this field and what barriers may be limiting evidence generation. This review aimed to systematically map published evidence on AI applications in ophthalmic nursing practice and education, characterize the technologies deployed and outcomes reported, and identify recurring research gaps and barriers through interpretive synthesis of the mapped literature. Four electronic databases (Web of Science Core Collections, PubMed, Scopus, and CINAHL) were searched from inception to June 12, 2026. Peer-reviewed English-language articles simultaneously addressing AI or machine learning, ophthalmology or eye conditions, and nurse engagement were eligible. Records were independently screened by two reviewers and data were extracted using a standardized charting form. From 254 records retrieved, 7 studies met the inclusion criteria (2023-2026). Applications spanned emergency triage and primary diagnosis, surgical nursing assistance (including one pre-clinical prototype without direct nurse involvement), day ward workflow management, and nursing education. Reported evaluation domains included triage or diagnostic performance, engineering detection performance, usability and acceptability, workflow efficiency, and educational outcomes. AI paradigms included classical machine learning, deep learning (convolutional neural networks), and large language models, deployed via clinical workflow interfaces, augmented reality, and robotic systems, and processing structured and multimodal data (image, text, audio). Despite ophthalmology's prominent role in the early development of clinical AI, dedicated research on AI in ophthalmic nursing remains uncommon in the published literature. To our knowledge, this is the first scoping review to draw on international, English-language sources on this topic. Future research should prioritize nurse-led studies in community and primary care settings, broader modality exploration matched to nursing tasks, rigorous prospective evaluation of nursing-specific outcomes, and, where no current study exists, nurses as active co-designers of AI tools.

PMID 42755614
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PubMedJournal of epidemiology and population health2026-09-18

Algorithms for the identification of ophthalmic diseases in medico-administrative databases: A systematic review.

Neau Julie J, Turpin Agathe A, Rajendrabose Deivanes D, Haneef Romana R et al.

Medico-administrative databases (MADs) are increasingly used in comparative effectiveness research. To conduct a systematic review of algorithms used for the identification of key ophthalmic diseases in MADs: age-related macular degeneration (AMD), diabetic retinopathy (DR)/ diabetic macular edema (DME), glaucoma, cataract and uveitis. We searched PubMed between June 30, 2016, and August 6, 2024, using keywords related to MADs and the ophthalmic diseases of interest. Two reviewers independently selected studies and extracted data. From the 1719 references identified, 315 were selected describing a total of 523 algorithms. Approximately half of the study objectives were related to the identification of factors associated with the onset of ophthalmic diseases, exacerbation, or hospitalization (48%, n = 151). Only 2% (n = 6) focused exclusively on the development and/or validation of algorithms. Most studies were from Taiwan (36%, n = 113), Korea (27%, n = 84) and the United States (20%, n = 64). From the 523 algorithms, a validation was mentioned for 47 (9%). After regrouping close algorithms, 433 different algorithms were identified concerning glaucoma (34%, n = 146), DR/DME (26%, n = 114), AMD (18%, n = 80), cataract (11%, n = 47) and uveitis (11%, n = 46). About half of these algorithms used diagnosis codes only (58%, n = 251), while others combined diagnosis codes and procedures (16%, n = 69), or diagnosis codes and drugs (12%, n = 50). This systematic review showed heterogeneity between algorithms used to identify the same pathology, raising the question of which ones are more appropriate to use in a particular context. Moreover, most algorithms were not validated despite the potential impact on study results.

PMID 42759221
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PubMedSaudi journal of ophthalmology : official journal of the Saudi Ophthalmological Society2026-09-18

Electrical shock-induced central serous chorioretinopathy.

Yilmaz Ibrahim E IE, Hiraali Mehmet C MC

Central serous chorioretinopathy (CSCR) is a common ophthalmic condition characterized by subretinal fluid accumulation at the macula, causing visual disturbances. While the aetiology is multifactorial, the association between CSCR and electrical shock injury remains rare and poorly understood. This paper presents a rare case of CSCR following electric shock and critically analyze the existing literature on this topic, exploring potential mechanisms, clinical features, and management considerations for CSCR following electrical shock.

PMID 42757009
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PubMedPharmaceutical research2026-09-18

Amorphous Solid Dispersions in Non-Oral Drug Delivery: A Critical Review Bridging Mechanistic Advantages and Gaps in Translational Evidence.

Riccio Bruno Vincenzo Fiod BVF, Leão Aline Franciane AF, Klosowski Ana Beatriz AB, Boni Fernanda Isadora FI et al.

Non-oral drug delivery routes, including cutaneous, transdermal, pulmonary, ophthalmic, parenteral, vaginal, and rectal administration, are essential for both local and systemic therapies but impose route-specific constraints on drug dissolution, retention, permeation, clearance, and exposure. Amorphous solid dispersions (ASDs),extensively investigated for oral delivery, may improve the performance of poorly water-soluble drugs by stabilizing high-energy amorphous states, increasing apparent solubility, and promoting transient supersaturation. However, their translation into non-oral dosage forms remains fragmented and largely preclinical. This review critically examines the potential, limitations, and translational challenges of ASDs for non-oral drug delivery, with emphasis on the physicochemical, biopharmaceutical, pharmaceutical, and route-dependent determinants governing their performance. Key aspects discussed include drug-polymer interactions, molecular mobility, phase behavior, water uptake, crystallization, interactions with secondary pharmaceutical bases, and route-specific pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic relationships. Current evidence is examined across dermal, transdermal, pulmonary, ophthalmic, vaginal, rectal, and parenteral delivery systems. Parenteral administration is considered a special case encompassing sterile suspensions, reconstitutable systems, microneedles, implants, and depot-forming formulations. Recent technological advances, patent and industrial landscapes, and the potential extension of ASD principles to peptides, proteins, biologics, and other complex molecular entities are also addressed. ASDs are further positioned in relation to alternative and complementary solubility-enhancing technologies, including nanoparticles, nanocrystals, cocrystals, cyclodextrins, micelles, lipid-based systems, emulsions, solvents, and cosolvents. ASDs off er a promising but still underdeveloped strategy for improving non-oral delivery of poorly soluble drugs. Their successful translation will depend not only on achieving and maintaining favorable amorphousstates and supersaturation, but also on converting these physicochemical advantages into route-specific drug exposure, therapeutic benefit, formulation stability, manufacturability, and clinically meaningful outcomes.

PMID 42754781
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PubMedFrontiers in oncology2026-09-18

Case Report: Neuroretinitis following combination checkpoint inhibition therapy with nivolumab and ipilimumab for stage IIIC melanoma.

Arefin Nuha S NS, Moon Jared J, Roller Aaron B AB, Aung Moe H MH

Neuroretinitis is a very rare but recognized immune-related adverse event (irAE) of immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) therapy. We present a case of likely ICI-associated neuroretinitis following combination nivolumab and ipilimumab treatment for stage IIIC cutaneous melanoma. Our patient is a 48-year-old woman with stage IIIC melanoma who developed acute left eye vision loss approximately three months after initiating nivolumab and ipilimumab, near the end of a corticosteroid taper for a concurrent systemic irAE. Examination showed best-corrected visual acuity of 20/400, severely reduced color vision (2/14 Ishihara plates), and a relative afferent pupillary defect in the left eye. Initial fundus exam of that eye revealed optic disc edema with nasal hemorrhages as well as peripapillary macular edema. There was a central scotoma with nasal steps on the Humphrey visual field (mean deviation -13.24 dB). Fluorescein angiography demonstrated disc leakage with inferior arcuate hypoperfusion. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) showed subsequent intraretinal exudates in the nasal macula bilaterally, worse in the left eye. Infectious workup and neuro-imaging were unremarkable. The patient was treated with intravenous methylprednisolone (IVMP) pulse and intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) at initial hospitalization, followed by a slow oral prednisone taper along with monthly IVIG outpatient. Her visual acuity in the left eye improved to 20/20 at 6-month follow-up visit. ICI-associated neuroretinitis is rare but vision-threatening and may emerge or worsen during systemic corticosteroid tapering for concurrent irAEs. Prompt recognition, exclusion of infectious mimics, and multidisciplinary management can yield meaningful visual recovery. Comprehensive neuro-ophthalmic assessment for ICI-associated neuro-ophthalmic complications including evaluation of color vision and pupillary function, documentation of fundus appearance, and additional ancillary testing with visual field and OCT analysis is essential.

PMID 42756432
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